All Studies Meta Analysis Recent:

Repurposed drug studies on the primary prevention of SARS-CoV-2 infection during the pandemic: systematic review and meta-analysis

Zhou et al., BMJ Open Respiratory Research, doi:10.1136/bmjresp-2023-001674, PROSPERO CRD42021292797

Aug 2023

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HCQ for COVID-19

1st treatment shown to reduce risk in March 2020

^*, now known with p < 0.00000000001 from 422 studies, recognized in 42 countries.

Lower risk for mortality, hospitalization, recovery, cases, and viral clearance.

No treatment is 100% effective. Protocols combine complementary and synergistic treatments. ^* >10% efficacy in meta analysis with ≥3 clinical studies.

4,100+ studies for 60+ treatments. c19hcq.org

Meta analysis with many errors/limitations/biases, including many missing studies, use of unadjusted results, use of non-symptomatic results, and use of all-cause instead of COVID-19 hospitalization.

For HCQ, there are 93 missing studies Agarwal, Ahmed, Alegiani, Alqatari, Alzahrani, Arleo, Becetti, Belmont, Bhatt, Bhattacharya, Cassione, Chevalier, Chouhdari, Cordtz, Cordtz (B), Datta, de la Iglesia, Desbois, Dhibar, Dulcey, Erden, Ferri, Finkelstein, Fitzgerald, Fung, Gendebien, Gendelman, Gentry, Gianfrancesco, Goenka, Guillaume, Gönenli, Huang, Huang (B), Huh, Isnardi, Juneja, Jung, Kamstrup, Khoubnasabjafari, Khurana, Klebanov, Konig, Korkmaz, Küçükakkaş, Laplana, Liu, Llanos-Cuentas, Loucera, MacFadden, Macias, Mahto, Mathai, Mathew, McCullough, Naggie, Nasri, Obrișcă, Oku, Opdam, Oztas, Patel, Patil, Pham, Piñana, Polat, Raabe, Rabe, Rangel, Rao, Rentsch, Revollo, Sahebari, Salesi, Salvarani, Samajdar, Santos, Satti, Scirocco, Sen, Shahrin, Shaw, Shukla, Simova, Singer, Strangfeld, Sukumar, Trefond, Ugarte-Gil, Vivanco-Hidalgo, Yadav, Yadav (B), Zhong, including 5 missing RCTs Chouhdari, Dhibar, Llanos-Cuentas, Naggie, Nasri. Note that Dhibar is missing (1,168 patient PEP RCT with positive results, the smaller non-RCT Dhibar (B) is included).

For ivermectin, there are 14 missing studies Alam, Behera, Behera (B), Bernigaud, Carvallo, Chahla, Desort-Henin, Hellwig, IVERCOR PREP, Kerr, Mondal, Morgenstern, Samajdar (B), Tanioka, including 2 missing RCTs Chahla, Desort-Henin. Four are in the appendix Behera, Behera (B), Chahla, Morgenstern (B) but are not used in the analysis. For ivermectin, in contrast with HCQ, authors show only results for clinical trials. However, they do not include Chahla, an RCT.

All 4 ivermectin RCTs as of publication time show statistically significant efficacy (authors avoid showing this for Seet by not showing symptomatic cases).

Some of the included studies are very low quality and most of the missing studies are higher quality.

Authors sometimes use adjusted results but often use unadjusted results when adjusted results are available.

The end of the inclusion period was almost a year out of date as of publication, which explains some of the missing studies.

Other sample issues:

Uses unadjusted results for Tirupakuzhi Vijayaraghavan (adjusted results show improved efficacy).

Uses unadjusted results for Polo (adjusted results show improved efficacy).

Uses non-symptomatic results for Polo (symptomatic results show improved efficacy).

Uses non-symptomatic results for Seet (symptomatic results show improved efficacy).

Uses non-symptomatic results for Shabani (symptomatic results show improved efficacy).

Hospitalization results for Mitjà are missing (favors treatment).

Uses all-cause rather than COVID-19 hospitalization for Rajasingham.

We checked the data for only a small selection of entries, there may be additional issues.

Results for many pre-registered treatments are missing including nitazoxanide, favipiravir, bromhexine, colchicine, metformin, and povidone-iodine.

7 meta analyses show significant improvements with hydroxychloroquine for mortality Landsteiner de Sampaio Amêndola, Risch, Risch (B), Stricker, hospitalization Landsteiner de Sampaio Amêndola, recovery Prodromos, combined death/hospitalization/cases Ladapo, and cases García-Albéniz.

Currently there are 106 HCQ for COVID-19 pre-exposure prophylaxis studies, showing 30% lower mortality [14‑43%] and 28% fewer cases [20‑35%].

1. Agarwal et al., Low dose hydroxychloroquine prophylaxis for COVID-19 - a prospective study, medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2021.09.13.21262971.medrxiv.org, doi.org.

2. Ahmed et al., Factors Affecting the Incidence, Progression, and Severity of COVID-19 in Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus, BioMed Research International, doi:10.1155/2021/1676914.hindawi.com, doi.org.

3. Alam et al., Ivermectin as Pre-exposure Prophylaxis for COVID-19 among Healthcare Providers in a Selected Tertiary Hospital in Dhaka – An Observational Study, European Journal of Medical and Health Sciences, doi:10.24018/ejmed.2020.2.6.599.ejmed.org, doi.org.

4. Alegiani et al., Risk of COVID-19 hospitalization and mortality in rheumatic patients treated with hydroxychloroquine or other conventional DMARDs in Italy, Rheumatology, doi:10.1093/rheumatology/keab348.oup.com, doi.org.

5. Alqatari et al., COVID-19 in patients with rheumatological diseases in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia, Journal of Medicine and Life, doi:10.25122/jml-2023-0037.europepmc.org, doi.org.

6. Alzahrani et al., Clinical characteristics and outcome of COVID-19 in patients with rheumatic diseases, Rheumatology International , doi:10.1007/s00296-021-04857-9.springer.com, doi.org.

7. Arleo et al., Clinical Course and Outcomes of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Rheumatic Disease Patients on Immunosuppression: A case Cohort Study at a Single Center with a Significantly Diverse Population, medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2020.10.26.20219154.medrxiv.org, doi.org.

8. Becetti et al., Prevalence of coronavirus disease 2019 in a multiethnic cohort of patients with autoimmune rheumatic diseases in Qatar, Qatar Medical Journal, doi:10.5339/qmj.2022.37.qscience.com, doi.org.

9. Behera et al., Prophylactic Role of Ivermectin in Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Infection Among Healthcare Workers, Cureus 13:8, doi:10.7759/cureus.16897.cureus.com, doi.org.

10. Behera (B) et al., Role of ivermectin in the prevention of SARS-CoV-2 infection among healthcare workers in India: A matched case-control study, PLoS ONE, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0247163.plos.org, doi.org.

11. Belmont et al., COVID-19 PrEP HCW HCQ Study, ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT04354870, clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/results/NCT04354870.clinicaltrials.gov.

12. Bernigaud et al., Ivermectin benefit: from scabies to COVID-19, an example of serendipity, Annals of Dermatology and Venereology, doi:10.1016/j.annder.2020.09.231.sciencedirect.com, doi.org.

13. Bhatt et al., Hydroxychloroquine Prophylaxis against Coronavirus Disease-19: Practice Outcomes among Health-Care Workers, medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2021.08.02.21260750.medrxiv.org, doi.org.

14. Bhattacharya et al., Pre exposure Hydroxychloroquine use is associated with reduced COVID19 risk in healthcare workers, medRxix, doi:10.1101/2020.06.09.20116806.medrxiv.org, doi.org.

15. Carvallo et al., Study of the Efficacy and Safety of Topical Ivermectin + Iota-Carrageenan in the Prophylaxis against COVID-19 in Health Personnel, Journal of Biomedical Research and Clinical Investigation, doi:10.31546/2633-8653.1007.medicalpressopenaccess.com, doi.org.

16. Cassione et al., COVID-19 infection in a northern-Italian cohort of systemic lupus erythematosus assessed by telemedicine, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, doi:10.1136/annrheumdis-2020-217717.bmj.com, doi.org.

17. Chahla et al., Intensive Treatment With Ivermectin and Iota-Carrageenan as Pre-exposure Prophylaxis for COVID-19 in Health Care Workers From Tucuman, Argentina, American Journal of Therapeutics, doi:10.1097/MJT.0000000000001433.lww.com, doi.org.

18. Chevalier et al., CovAID: Identification of factors associated with severe COVID-19 in patients with inflammatory rheumatism or autoimmune diseases, Frontiers in Medicine, doi:10.3389/fmed.2023.1152587.frontiersin.org, doi.org.

19. Chouhdari et al., The prophylactic effect of hydroxychloroquine on the severity of COVID-19 infection in an asymptomatic population: A randomized clinical trial, Social Determinants of Health, doi:10.22037/sdh.v10i1.43032.ac.ir, doi.org.

20. Cordtz et al., Incidence and severeness of COVID-19 hospitalisation in patients with inflammatory rheumatic disease: a nationwide cohort study from Denmark, Rheumatology, doi:10.1093/rheumatology/keaa897.oup.com, doi.org.

21. Cordtz (B) et al., Incidence of COVID-19 Hospitalisation in Patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: A Nationwide Cohort Study from Denmark, Journal of Clinical Medicine, doi:10.3390/jcm10173842.mdpi.com, doi.org.

22. Datta et al., No Role of HCQ in COVID-19 Prophylaxis: A Survey amongst Indian Doctors, Journal of Vaccines & Vaccination, S6:1000002, www.longdom.org/open-access/no-role-of-hcq-in-covid19-prophylaxis-a-survey-amongst-indian-doctors.pdf.longdom.org.

23. de la Iglesia et al., Hydroxicloroquine for pre-exposure prophyylaxis for SARS-CoV-2, medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2020.08.31.20185314.medrxiv.org, doi.org.

24. Desbois et al., Prevalence and clinical features of COVID-19 in a large cohort of 199 patients with sarcoidosis, Research Square, doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-41653/v1.researchsquare.com, doi.org.

25. Desort-Henin et al., The SAIVE Trial, Post-Exposure use of ivermectin in Covid-19 prevention: Efficacy and Safety Results, ECCMID 2023 (results released 1/5/2023), www.medincell.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Poster-SAIVE-April2023-OK3.pdf.medincell.com.

26. Dhibar et al., The ‘myth of Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) as post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) for the prevention of COVID-19’ is far from reality, Scientific Reports, doi:10.1038/s41598-022-26053-w.nature.com, doi.org.

27. Dhibar (B) et al., Post Exposure Prophylaxis with Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) for the Prevention of COVID-19, a Myth or a Reality? The PEP-CQ Study, International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.106224.sciencedirect.com, doi.org.

28. Dulcey et al., Long-Term Hydroxychloroquine and Its Association with Covid-19 Infection, a Cohort Study from a South American Hospital, Journal of Clinical Rheumatology, doi:10.1097/RHU.0000000000001986.lww.com, doi.org.

29. Erden et al., COVID-19 outcomes in patients with antiphospholipid syndrome: a retrospective cohort study, Bratislava Medical Journal, doi:10.4149/BLL_2022_018.elis.sk, doi.org.

30. Ferri et al., COVID-19 and rheumatic autoimmune systemic diseases: report of a large Italian patients series, Clinical Rheumatology, doi:0.1007/s10067-020-05334-7.springer.com, doi.org.

31. Finkelstein et al., The Efficacy of Long-Term Hydroxychloroquine Use in the Prevention of COVID-19: A Retrospective Cohort Study, Studies in Health Technology and Informatics, doi:10.3233/SHTI230489.iospress.nl, doi.org.

32. Fitzgerald et al., Risk Factors for Infection and Health Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic in People with Autoimmune Diseases, medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2021.02.03.21251069.medrxiv.org, doi.org.

33. Fung et al., Effect of common maintenance drugs on the risk and severity of COVID-19 in elderly patients, PLoS ONE, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0266922.plos.org, doi.org.

34. García-Albéniz et al., Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials of hydroxychloroquine for the prevention of COVID-19, European Journal of Epidemiology, doi:10.1007/s10654-022-00891-4.springer.com, doi.org.

35. Gendebien et al., Systematic analysis of COVID-19 infection and symptoms in a systemic lupus erythematosus population: correlation with disease characteristics, hydroxychloroquine use and immunosuppressive treatments, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, doi:10.1136/annrheumdis-2020-218244.bmj.com, doi.org.

36. Gendelman et al., Continuous Hydroxychloroquine or Colchicine Therapy Does Not Prevent Infection With SARS-CoV-2: Insights From a Large Healthcare Database Analysis, Autoimmunity Reviews, 19:7, July 2020, doi:10.1016/j.autrev.2020.102566.sciencedirect.com, doi.org.

37. Gentry et al., Long-term hydroxychloroquine use in patients with rheumatic conditions and development of SARS-CoV-2 infection: a retrospective cohort study, Lancet Rheumatology, doi:10.1016/S2665-9913(20)30305-2.thelancet.com, doi.org.

38. Gianfrancesco et al., Characteristics associated with hospitalisation for COVID-19 in people with rheumatic disease: data from the COVID-19 Global Rheumatology Alliance physician-reported registry, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, 79:7, 859-866, doi:10.1136/annrheumdis-2020-217871.europepmc.org, doi.org.

39. Goenka et al., Seroprevalence of COVID-19 Amongst Health Care Workers in a Tertiary Care Hospital of a Metropolitan City from India, SSRN, doi:10.2139/ssrn.3689618.ssrn.com, doi.org.

40. Gönenli et al., Analysis of the Prophylactic use of Hydroxychloroquine at the Beginning of the COVID-19 Pandemic Among Physicians, Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology, doi:10.36519/idcm.2022.111.idcmjournal.org, doi.org.

41. Guillaume et al., Antirheumatic Drug Intake Influence on Occurrence of COVID-19 Infection in Ambulatory Patients with Immune-Mediated Inflammatory Diseases: A Cohort Study, Rheumatology and Therapy, doi:10.1007/s40744-021-00373-1.springer.com, doi.org.

42. Hellwig et al., A COVID-19 Prophylaxis? Lower incidence associated with prophylactic administration of Ivermectin, International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.106248.sciencedirect.com, doi.org.

43. Huang et al., Effect of traditional therapeutics on prevalence and clinical outcomes of coronavirus disease 2019 in Chinese patients with autoimmune diseases, Journal of Translational Autoimmunity, doi:10.1016/j.jtauto.2023.100227.sciencedirect.com, doi.org.

44. Huang (B) et al., Clinical characteristics of 17 patients with COVID-19 and systemic autoimmune diseases: a retrospective study, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 2020:79, 1163-1169, doi:10.1136/annrheumdis-2020-217425.bmj.com, doi.org.

45. Huh et al., Association of prescribed medications with the risk of COVID-19 infection and severity among adults in South Korea, International Journal of Infectious Diseases, doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2020.12.041.sciencedirect.com, doi.org.

46. Isnardi et al., Sociodemographic and clinical factors associated with poor COVID-19 outcomes in patients with rheumatic diseases: data from the SAR-COVID Registry, Clinical Rheumatology, doi:10.1007/s10067-022-06393-8.springer.com, doi.org.

47. IVERCOR PREP, Ivermectina en agentes de salud e IVERCOR COVID19, Preliminary Results, web.archive.org/web/20210226215453/https://twitter.com/Covid19Crusher/status/1365420061859717124.archive.org.

48. Juneja et al., Hydroxychloroquine pre-exposure prophylaxis provides no protection against COVID-19 among health care workers: a cross-sectional study in a tertiary care hospital in North India, Journal of Basic and Clinical Physiology and Pharmacology, doi:10.1515/jbcpp-2021-0221.degruyter.com, doi.org.

49. Jung et al., Effect of hydroxychloroquine pre-exposure on infection with SARS-CoV-2 in rheumatic disease patients: A population-based cohort study, Clinical Microbiology and Infection, doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2020.12.003.sciencedirect.com, doi.org.

50. Kamstrup et al., Hydroxychloroquine as a primary prophylactic agent against sars-cov-2 infection: a cohort study, International Journal of Infectious Diseases, doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2021.05.076.sciencedirect.com, doi.org.

51. Kerr et al., Ivermectin Prophylaxis Used for COVID-19: A Citywide, Prospective, Observational Study of 223,128 Subjects Using Propensity Score Matching, Cureus, doi:10.7759/cureus.21272.cureus.com, doi.org.

52. Khoubnasabjafari et al., Prevalence of COVID-19 in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) already treated with hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) compared with HCQ-naive patients with RA: a multicentre cross-sectional study, Postgraduate Medical Journal, doi:10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-139561.bmj.com, doi.org.

53. Khurana et al., Prevalence and clinical correlates of COVID-19 outbreak among healthcare workers in a tertiary level hospital, medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2020.07.21.20159301.medrxiv.org, doi.org.

54. Klebanov et al., Antimalarials are not Effective as Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis for COVID-19: A Retrospective Matched Control Study, Journal of Drugs in Dermatology, doi:10.36849/jdd.6593.jddonline.com, doi.org.

55. Konig et al., Baseline use of hydroxychloroquine in systemic lupus erythematosus does not preclude SARS-CoV-2 infection and severe COVID-19, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, doi:10.1136/annrheumdis-2020-217690.bmj.com, doi.org.

56. Korkmaz et al., The effect of Hydroxychloroquine use due to rheumatic disease on the risk of Covid-19 infection and its course, Authorea, doi:10.22541/au.162257516.68665404/v1.authorea.com, doi.org.

57. Küçükakkaş et al., The effect of hydroxychloroquine against SARS-CoV-2 infection in rheumatoid arthritis patients, Research Square, doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-43812/v1.researchsquare.com, doi.org.

58. Ladapo et al., Randomized Controlled Trials of Early Ambulatory Hydroxychloroquine in the Prevention of COVID-19 Infection, Hospitalization, and Death: Meta-Analysis, medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2020.09.30.20204693.medrxiv.org, doi.org.

59. Landsteiner de Sampaio Amêndola et al., COVID-19 Infection in Rheumatic Patients on Chronic Antimalarial Drugs: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis, Journal of Clinical Medicine, doi:10.3390/jcm11226865.mdpi.com, doi.org.

60. Laplana et al., Lack of protective effect of chloroquine derivatives on COVID-19 disease in a Spanish sample of chronically treated patients, PLOS ONE, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0243598.plos.org, doi.org.

61. Liu et al., Factors affecting different COVID-19 outcomes in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus during the second pandemic wave of COVID-19 in China, Lupus, doi:10.1177/09612033241230736.sagepub.com, doi.org.

62. Llanos-Cuentas et al., Hydroxychloroquine to prevent SARS-CoV-2 infection among healthcare workers: early termination of a phase 3, randomised, open-label, controlled clinical trial, BMC Research Notes, doi:10.1186/s13104-023-06281-7.biomedcentral.com, doi.org.

63. Loucera et al., Real-world evidence with a retrospective cohort of 15,968 COVID-19 hospitalized patients suggests 21 new effective treatments, Virology Journal, doi:10.1186/s12985-023-02195-9.biomedcentral.com, doi.org.

64. MacFadden et al., Screening Large Population Health Databases for Potential COVID-19 Therapeutics: A Pharmacopeia-Wide Association Study (PWAS) of Commonly Prescribed Medications, Open Forum Infectious Diseases, doi:10.1093/ofid/ofac156.oup.com, doi.org.

65. Macias et al., Similar incidence of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in patients with rheumatic diseases with and without hydroxychloroquine therapy, medRxiv, 10.1101/2020.05.16.20104141, www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.05.16.20104141v1.medrxiv.org.

66. Mahto et al., Seroprevalence of IgG against SARS-CoV-2 and its determinants among healthcare workers of a COVID-19 dedicated hospital of India, American Journal of Blood Research, 11:1, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/labs/pmc/articles/PMC8010601/.nih.gov.

67. Mathai et al., Hydroxychloroquine as pre-exposure prophylaxis against COVID-19 in health-care workers: A single-center experience, J. Marine Medical Society, doi:10.4103/jmms.jmms_115_20.marinemedicalsociety.in, doi.org.

68. Mathew et al., Predictors of COVID-19 severity and outcomes in Indian patients with rheumatic diseases: a prospective cohort study, Rheumatology Advances in Practice, doi:10.1093/rap/rkad025.oup.com, doi.org.

69. McCullough et al., Hydroxychloroquine in the Prevention of COVID-19 Infection in Healthcare Workers, NCT04333225, clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT04333225.clinicaltrials.gov.

70. Mitjà et al., A Cluster-Randomized Trial of Hydroxychloroquine as Prevention of Covid-19 Transmission and Disease, NEJM, doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2021801.nejm.org, doi.org.

71. Mondal et al., Prevalence of COVID-19 Infection and Identification of Risk Factors among Asymptomatic Healthcare Workers: A Serosurvey Involving Multiple Hospitals in West Bengal, Journal of the Indian Medical Association, 119:5, onlinejima.com/read_journals.php?article=683.onlinejima.com.

72. Morgenstern et al., Ivermectin as a SARS-CoV-2 Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis Method in Healthcare Workers: A Propensity Score-Matched Retrospective Cohort Study, Cureus, doi:10.7759/cureus.17455.cureus.com, doi.org.

73. Morgenstern (B) et al., The Use of Compassionate Ivermectin in the Management of SymptomaticOutpatients and Hospitalized Patients with Clinical Diagnosis of Covid-19 at theCentro Medico Bournigal and at the Centro Medico Punta Cana, GrupoRescue, Dominican Republic, from May 1 to August 10, 2020, J. Clinical Trials (preprint 11/3), www.longdom.org/open-access/the-use-of-compassionate-ivermectin-in-the-management-of-symptomatic-outpatients-and-hospitalized-patients-with-clinical.pdf.longdom.org.

74. Naggie et al., Hydroxychloroquine for pre-exposure prophylaxis of COVID-19 in health care workers: A randomized, multicenter, placebo-controlled trial (HERO-HCQ), International Journal of Infectious Diseases, doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2023.01.019.sciencedirect.com, doi.org.

75. Nasri et al., Efficacy of hydroxychloroquine in pre-exposure severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 prophylaxis among high-risk healthcare workers: A multicenter study, Advanced Biomedical Research, doi:10.4103/abr.abr_104_21.advbiores.net, doi.org.

76. Obrișcă et al., Characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 Infection in an Actively Monitored Cohort of Patients with Lupus Nephritis, Biomedicines, doi:10.3390/biomedicines10102423.mdpi.com, doi.org.

77. Oku et al., Risk factors for hospitalization or mortality for COVID-19 in patients with rheumatic diseases: Results of a nation-wide JCR COVID-19 registry in Japan, Modern Rheumatology, doi:10.1093/mr/roac104.oup.com, doi.org.

78. Opdam et al., Identification of Risk Factors for COVID-19 Hospitalization in Patients with Anti-Rheumatic Drugs: Results from a Multicenter Nested Case Control Study, Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics, doi:10.1002/cpt.2551.wiley.com, doi.org.

79. Oztas et al., Frequency and Severity of COVID-19 in Patients with Various Rheumatic Diseases Treated Regularly with Colchicine or Hydroxychloroquine, Journal of Medical Virology, doi:10.1002/jmv.27731.wiley.com, doi.org.

80. Patel et al., Factors Associated with COVID-19 Breakthrough Infection in the Pre-Omicron Era Among Vaccinated Patients with Rheumatic Diseases: A Cohort Study, medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2022.07.13.22277606.medrxiv.org, doi.org.

81. Patil et al., A Prospective Longitudinal Study Evaluating The Influence of Immunosuppressives and Other Factors On COVID-19 in Autoimmune Rheumatic Diseases, Research Square, doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-805748/v1.researchsquare.com, doi.org.

82. Pham et al., Failure of chronic hydroxychloroquine in preventing severe complications of COVID-19 in patients with rheumatic diseases, Rheumatology Advances in Practice, 10.1093/rap/rkab014, academic.oup.com/rheumap/advance-article/doi/10.1093/rap/rkab014/6156645.oup.com.

83. Piñana et al., Risk factors and outcome of COVID-19 in patients with hematological malignancies, Experimental Hematology & Oncology, doi:10.1186/s40164-020-00177-z.biomedcentral.com, doi.org.

84. Polat et al., Hydroxychloroquine Use on Healthcare Workers Exposed to COVID-19 - A Pandemic Hospital Experience, Medical Journal of Bakirkoy, 16:3, 280-6, doi:10.5222/BMJ.2020.50469.com.tr, doi.org.

85. Polo et al., Daily tenofovir disoproxil fumarate/emtricitabine and hydroxychloroquine for pre-exposure prophylaxis of COVID-19: a double-blind placebo controlled randomized trial in healthcare workers, Clinical Microbiology and Infection, doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2022.07.006.sciencedirect.com, doi.org.

86. Prodromos et al., Hydroxychloroquine is effective, and consistently so used early, for Covid-19: A systematic review, New Microbes and New Infections, doi:10.1016/j.nmni.2020.100776.sciencedirect.com, doi.org.

87. Raabe et al., Hydroxychloroquine pre-exposure prophylaxis to prevent SARS-CoV-2 among health care workers at risk for SARS-CoV-2 exposure: A nonrandomized controlled trial, medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2022.07.01.22277058.medrxiv.org, doi.org.

88. Rabe et al., Impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection on patients with systemic lupus erythematosus in England prior to vaccination: a retrospective observational cohort study, BMJ Open, doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2022-071072.bmj.com, doi.org.

89. Rajasingham et al., Hydroxychloroquine as pre-exposure prophylaxis for COVID-19 in healthcare workers: a randomized trial, medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2020.09.18.20197327.oup.com, doi.org.

90. Rangel et al., Chronic Hydroxychloroquine Therapy and COVID-19 Outcomes: A Retrospective Case-Control Analysis, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2020.10.098.sciencedirect.com, doi.org.

91. Rao et al., Hydroxychloroquine as pre-exposure prophylaxis against COVID-19 infection among healthcare workers: a prospective cohort study, Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy, doi:10.1080/14787210.2022.2015326.tandfonline.com, doi.org.

92. Rentsch et al., Effect of pre-exposure use of hydroxychloroquine on COVID-19 mortality: a population-based cohort study in patients with rheumatoid arthritis or systemic lupus erythematosus using the OpenSAFELY platform, The Lancet Rheumatology, doi:10.1016/S2665-9913(20)30378-7.sciencedirect.com, doi.org.

93. Revollo et al., Hydroxychloroquine pre-exposure prophylaxis for COVID-19 in healthcare workers, Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, doi:10.1093/jac/dkaa477.oup.com, doi.org.

94. Risch, H., Early Outpatient Treatment of Symptomatic, High-Risk Covid-19 Patients that Should be Ramped-Up Immediately as Key to the Pandemic Crisis, American Journal of Epidemiology, kwaa093, 27 May 2020, doi:10.1093/aje/kwaa093.oup.com, doi.org.

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Zhou et al., 28 Aug 2023, peer-reviewed, 11 authors, trial PROSPERO CRD42021292797. Contact: g.zhou@rug.nl.

This Paper HCQ All

Repurposed drug studies on the primary prevention of SARS-CoV-2 infection during the pandemic: systematic review and meta-analysis

Guiling Zhou, Stefan Verweij, Maarten J Bijlsma, Stijn De Vos, Katrien Oude Rengerink, Anna Maria Gerdina Pasmooij, Debbie Van Baarle, Hubert G M Niesters, Peter Mol, Judith M Vonk, Eelko Hak

BMJ Open Respiratory Research, doi:10.1136/bmjresp-2023-001674

Objective Current evidence on the effectiveness of SARS-CoV-2 prophylaxis is inconclusive. We aimed to systematically evaluate published studies on repurposed drugs for the prevention of laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection and/or COVID-19 among healthy adults. Design Systematic review. Eligibility Quantitative experimental and observational intervention studies that evaluated the effectiveness of repurposed drugs for the primary prevention of SARS-CoV-2 infection and/or COVID-19 disease.

Competing interests None declared. Patient consent for publication Not applicable. Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed. Supplemental material This content has been supplied by the author(s). It has not been vetted by BMJ Publishing Group Limited (BMJ) and may not have been peer-reviewed. Any opinions or recommendations discussed are solely those of the author(s) and are not endorsed by BMJ. BMJ disclaims all liability and responsibility arising from any reliance placed on the content. Where the content includes any translated material, BMJ does not warrant the accuracy and reliability of the translations (including but not limited to local regulations, clinical guidelines, terminology, drug names and drug dosages), and is not responsible for any error and/or omissions arising from translation and adaptation or otherwise.

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