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Chloroquine is a potent inhibitor of SARS coronavirus infection and spread

Vincent et al., Virol. J. 2:69, 2005, doi:10.1186/1743-422X-2-69
Oct 2005  
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HCQ for COVID-19
1st treatment shown to reduce risk in March 2020, now with p < 0.00000000001 from 418 studies, recognized in 46 countries.
No treatment is 100% effective. Protocols combine treatments.
5,000+ studies for 104 treatments. c19hcq.org
In Vitro study for SARS-CoV-1. CQ has strong antiviral effects on SARS CoV infection when cells treated either before or after exposure, suggesting prophylactic and treatment use. Describes three mechanisms by which the drug might work and suggests it may have both a prophylactic and therapeutic role in coronavirus infections.
38 preclinical studies support the efficacy of HCQ for COVID-19:
Vincent et al., 22 Oct 2005, peer-reviewed, 8 authors.
In Vitro studies are an important part of preclinical research, however results may be very different in vivo.
This PaperHCQAll
Chloroquine is a potent inhibitor of SARS coronavirus infection and spread
Martin J Vincent, Eric Bergeron, Suzanne Benjannet, Bobbie R Erickson, Pierre E Rollin, Thomas G Ksiazek, Nabil G Seidah, Stuart T Nichol
Virology Journal, doi:10.1186/1743-422x-2-69
Background: Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is caused by a newly discovered coronavirus (SARS-CoV). No effective prophylactic or post-exposure therapy is currently available. Results: We report, however, that chloroquine has strong antiviral effects on SARS-CoV infection of primate cells. These inhibitory effects are observed when the cells are treated with the drug either before or after exposure to the virus, suggesting both prophylactic and therapeutic advantage. In addition to the well-known functions of chloroquine such as elevations of endosomal pH, the drug appears to interfere with terminal glycosylation of the cellular receptor, angiotensinconverting enzyme 2. This may negatively influence the virus-receptor binding and abrogate the infection, with further ramifications by the elevation of vesicular pH, resulting in the inhibition of infection and spread of SARS CoV at clinically admissible concentrations. Conclusion: Chloroquine is effective in preventing the spread of SARS CoV in cell culture. Favorable inhibition of virus spread was observed when the cells were either treated with chloroquine prior to or after SARS CoV infection. In addition, the indirect immunofluorescence assay described herein represents a simple and rapid method for screening SARS-CoV antiviral compounds. Background Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is an emerging disease that was first reported in Guangdong Province, China, in late 2002. The disease rapidly spread to at least 30 countries within months of its first appearance, and concerted worldwide efforts led to the identification of the etiological agent as SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV), a novel member of the family Coronaviridae [1] . Complete genome sequencing of 3] confirmed that this pathogen is not closely related to any of the
Authors' contributions MV did all the experiments pertaining to SARS CoV infection and coordinated the drafting of the manuscript. EB and SB performed experiments on ACE2 biosynthesis and FACS analysis. BE performed data acquisition from the immunofluorescence experiments. PR and TK provided critical reagents and revised the manuscript critically. NS and SN along with MV and EB participated in the planning of the experiments, review and interpretation of data and critical review of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the content of the manuscript.
References
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Bisht, Roberts, Vogel, Bukreyev, Collins et al., Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus spike protein expressed by attenuated vaccinia virus protectively immunizes mice, Proc Natl Acad Sci
Bukreyev, Lamirande, Buchholz, Vogel, Elkins et al., Mucosal immunization of African green monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) with an attenuated parainfluenza virus expressing the SARS coronavirus spike protein for the prevention of SARS, Lancet
Dille, Johnson, Inhibition of vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein expression by chloroquine, J Gen Virol
Ducharme, Farinotti, Clinical pharmacokinetics and metabolism of chloroquine. Focus on recent advancements, Clin Pharmacokinet
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Savarino, Boelaert, Cassone, Majori, Cauda, Effects of chloroquine on viral infections: an old drug against today's diseases?, Lancet Infect Dis
Savarino, Lucia, Rastrelli, Rutella, Golotta et al., Anti-HIV effects of chloroquine: inhibition of viral particle glycosylation and synergism with protease inhibitors, J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr
Simmons, Reeves, Rennekamp, Amberg, Piefer et al., Characterization of severe acute respiratory syndromeassociated coronavirus (SARS-CoV) spike glycoproteinmediated viral entry, Proc Natl Acad Sci
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Stroher, Dicaro, Li, Strong, Aoki et al., Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus is inhibited by interferon-alpha, J Infect Dis
Subbarao, Mcauliffe, Vogel, Fahle, Fischer et al., Prior infection and passive transfer of neutralizing antibody prevent replication of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus in the respiratory tract of mice, J Virol
Sui, Li, Murakami, Tamin, Matthews et al., Potent neutralization of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus by a human mAb to S1 protein that blocks receptor association, Proc Natl Acad Sci
Thorens, Vassalli, Chloroquine and ammonium chloride prevent terminal glycosylation of immunoglobulins in plasma cells without affecting secretion, Nature
Tipnis, Hooper, Hyde, Karran, Christie et al., A human homolog of angiotensin-converting enzyme. Cloning and functional expression as a captopril-insensitive carboxypeptidase, J Biol Chem
Tsai, Nara, Kung, Oroszlan, Inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus infectivity by chloroquine, AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses
Yang, Huang, Ganesh, Leung, Kong et al., pH-dependent entry of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus is mediated by the spike glycoprotein and enhanced by dendritic cell transfer through DC-SIGN, J Virol
Yang, Kong, Huang, Roberts, Murphy et al., A DNA vaccine induces SARS coronavirus neutralization and protective immunity in mice, Nature
Zhang, Li, Fu, Yu, Li et al., Silencing SARS-CoV spike protein expression in cultured cells by RNA interference, FEBS Lett
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Clin Pharmacokinet 1996, 31: ' '257-274.', 'journal-title': 'Clin Pharmacokinet'}], 'container-title': 'Virology Journal', 'original-title': [], 'language': 'en', 'link': [ { 'URL': 'https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/1743-422X-2-69.pdf', 'content-type': 'application/pdf', 'content-version': 'vor', 'intended-application': 'similarity-checking'}], 'deposited': { 'date-parts': [[2021, 8, 31]], 'date-time': '2021-08-31T23:59:49Z', 'timestamp': 1630454389000}, 'score': 1, 'resource': {'primary': {'URL': 'https://virologyj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1743-422X-2-69'}}, 'subtitle': [], 'short-title': [], 'issued': {'date-parts': [[2005, 8, 22]]}, 'references-count': 26, 'journal-issue': {'issue': '1', 'published-print': {'date-parts': [[2005, 12]]}}, 'alternative-id': ['84'], 'URL': 'http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1743-422X-2-69', 'relation': {}, 'ISSN': ['1743-422X'], 'subject': [], 'container-title-short': 'Virol J', 'published': {'date-parts': [[2005, 8, 22]]}, 'assertion': [ { 'value': '12 July 2005', 'order': 1, 'name': 'received', 'label': 'Received', 'group': {'name': 'ArticleHistory', 'label': 'Article History'}}, { 'value': '22 August 2005', 'order': 2, 'name': 'accepted', 'label': 'Accepted', 'group': {'name': 'ArticleHistory', 'label': 'Article History'}}, { 'value': '22 August 2005', 'order': 3, 'name': 'first_online', 'label': 'First Online', 'group': {'name': 'ArticleHistory', 'label': 'Article History'}}], 'article-number': '69'}
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